All Kinds of Rocks, Fossils

Opal Rough

Functional textile blossom

Productivity Center from the textile industry, China Textile Academy, Beijing Textile Engineering Society's "third functional textiles and nanotechnology applications Seminar" was in December 2003 3-5 in Beijing. The seminar gathered more than 220 from across the country engaged in textile, garment, chemical, medical, military, aerospace and nanotechnology experts and scholars, entrepreneurs, on the principle of functional textiles, performance, process technology and new product development for the discussion. The General Assembly invited the major state basic research in nano-materials scientists Group Chief Scientist De Zhang, Donghua University, Dean of the Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Mei-Fang Zhu, Chinese Academy of Sciences, deputy director of nanotechnology, Jiang Lei and Tsinghua University, Quartermaster General Logistics Department, Beijing University of Technology , Beijing Institute of Clothing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, East China University of Technology, Xi'an University of Technology, the China Rehabilitation Center, Space Medicine Research Institute, China Textile Academy more than 30 experts at the meeting made a wonderful report, also from the high China Textile Industry Co., Ltd., Beijing 100 shield sterilization new materials, nano-Institute, Beijing Sunshine Tech Co., Ltd., more than 10 worsted textile business presentations or demonstrate new products developed, in cooperation with the relevant expressed a strong desire . This seminar is a multi-disciplinary, multi-platform field, but also high-end science education activities. From Beijing, Shijiazhuang, Xi'an, Guangzhou, textile industry veteran leaders, experts have come to guide the participants, the oldest has reached the age of 85. Premier Zhu Baoyu original Northwest Textile Institute said with emotion: "Seeing so many science and technology talents to contribute to the textile industry, textile and power of China as the day is within sight."

SARS epidemic because of this seminar was postponed, but also prompted some researchers specifically for this seminar provides a number of articles on anti-bacterial, anti-virus research, such as the Quartermaster Equipment Institute of General Logistics Department, Beijing, 100 new shield nano-disinfection Materials Research Institute, Hong Kong Polytechnic University are all on the mechanism of transmission of the virus, blocking and inactivation measures, protective equipment, and so made a lot of in-depth study, some techniques can be used to suppress not only destroy harmful bacteria, but also some even the SARS virus isolation play, inactivated, and this for the future counter-terrorism, anti-chemical and biological weapons are also of great significance.

Another discussion session focused on bionics in the application of functional textiles, which in the medical, health, health sector has a promising future. Tsinghua University, fiber materials in biological applications of inventive, they obtained the collagen fibers of nano-scale composite biological material, is expected to a certain area of bone tissue repair applications. CAS Chemistry from the lotus leaf, insects and other micro-structure of the hydrophobic to develop a super-sparse interface materials, textiles and apparel have been applied. TECHNOLOGY from expert speakers and the content, the most encouraging is that our research on electrospinning is narrowing the gap with developed countries. Electrospinning, also known as "electrospinning" is a polymer solution or melt by means of a strong electric field in the formation of the spinning jet stream processing technology, now has a successful electrospinning process of polymer more than 30 species. The legal system was the fiber diameter can achieve the nanometer level, the majority of non-woven form appears, because the gap is extremely small, can block bacteria, viruses, and harmful substances, but soft, breathable.

Currently used in tissue engineering scaffolds, because the structural and functional similarity to natural extracellular matrix, and has good biocompatibility and a certain degree of strength and stability, but also easy to manufacture, and therefore for the reconstruction of human organs one way is better. Electrospinning in biomedical materials also used for: preparation of blood vessels, tissue repair, wound management, drug carriers and drug delivery and so on. In addition, electrospinning is also a variety of semi-permeable membrane, filtration and purification devices, the mixture enhanced waterproof fabric, plant pesticides and other promising fields. Electrospinning will become the most important areas of functional materials processing methods.

The development of functional textiles in addition to functional particles, powder fill added to polymers or textiles abroad, using natural materials, new type of fiber has also been the concern of the textile industry. If China is very rich in bamboo resources in the countries, but the bamboo fiber give the impression that the rough, hard, brittle, rarely used for textiles, in recent years Although a useful method of production of viscose, extracted from the spinning of man-made bamboo bamboo fiber , but production will pollute the environment. Ma by Zhuzhou Cedar Co., Ltd. developed fiber, is the direct physical methods separate from the bamboo fiber, an environmentally friendly fiber, bamboo fiber that moisture absorption, ventilation, delicate, smooth, cool and bright, anti-bacterial deodorant, can be used for high-grade underwear, infant clothing, bedding and socks. Extracted from the bamboo bamboo fiber produced complete lignin, can be paper, plywood, raw materials, facilitate the integrated development. In addition, the symposium on the corn fiber, cotton fiber, chitin fiber, polyphenylene sulfide fiber has also been involved in the application. The functional textiles than the current hot topics, such as a produce negative ions, flame retardant, anti-UV, anti-bacterial, fragrance, color, easy care, easy care, electromagnetic shielding, far infrared, Photocatalyst, the latest research smart textiles Progress has also been a lot of discussion.

In the final by the Tung Wah Group of Materials Science and Engineering, Dean of China's textile industry Meifang contribution to national economy, with high-tech transformation of the traditional textile and East China University of functional and Textile R & D results are described in detail . Renowned expert Professor Zhang Lide nano-materials introduced movements of nanometer materials research, proposes the development of China's nano-technology industry, calling not to exploit the concept of nanotechnology, to correctly understand the nano-materials and nano-technology, scientific content, market-oriented bar solid real innovation, out of misunderstanding of the concept of nanotechnology, nano-materials and nano-promoting our country's technology industry's healthy development. Commonly used in the textile industry, the characteristics of nano-materials and structural design put forward constructive suggestions. Sure of functional nano-technology products in an effective role, we must guard against the risk of nano-products in the market. The textile industry, Zhang positive, scientific research and development of nanotechnology was pleased, such as Beijing 100 sterilization new materials, nano shield developed by the Institute of the second generation of organic self-assembled materials have been effectively used for antimicrobial Baoding Textile Co., Ltd. Sun Mountain fur on ; of Yanshan University, Professor Li Qingshan discovered natural opal, most likely used to improve the anion concentration of textiles. Many delegates are attending the workshop very fruitful, I hope an annual event.
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Gem Stones

A gemstone or gem (also called a precious or semi-precious stone, or jewel) is a piece of attractive mineral, which—when cut and polished—is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However certain rocks, (such as lapis lazuli) and organic materials (such as amber or jet) are not minerals, but are still used for jewelry, and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most Gem Stones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their lustre or other physical properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone. Apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity until the 19th century engraved gems and hardstone carvings such as cups were major luxury art forms; the carvings of Carl Fabergé were the last significant works in this tradition.

For example, diamonds are made of carbon (C) and rubies of aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic. Another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example diamonds, which have a cubic crystal system, are often found as octahedrons.

 

Gem Stones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), bixbite (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink) are all varieties of the mineral species beryl.

 

Gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction. They may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum.

 

There are no universally accepted grading systems for any gemstone other than white (colorless) diamond. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in the early 1950s. Historically all gemstones were graded using the naked eye. The GIA system included a major innovation, the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity. Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision).

 

A mnemonic device, the "four C's" (color, cut, clarity and carat), has been introduced to help the consumer understand the factors used to grade a diamond. With modification these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones. The four criteria carry different weight depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamond. In diamonds, cut is the primary determinant of value followed by clarity and color. Diamonds are meant to sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion) chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation) and deliver it to the eye (brilliance). In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things, it requires proper fashioning and this is called "cut". In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, it is the purity and beauty of that color that is the primary determinant of quality.

 

Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning, and asteria (star effects). The Greeks for example greatly valued asteria in gemstones, which were regarded as a powerful love charm, and Helen of Troy was known to have worn star-corundum.

 

Historically gemstones were classified into precious stones and semi-precious stones. Because such a definition can change over time and vary with culture, it has always been a difficult matter to determine what constitutes precious stones.

 

A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other form in which they are found. Most however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The picture to the left is of a rural, commercial cutting operation in Thailand. This small factory cuts thousands of carats of sapphire annually. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles.

 

Stones which are opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones.

 

Gems which are transparent are normally faceted, a method which shows the optical properties of the stone's interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle. There are many commonly used shapes for faceted stones. The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the optical properties of the gem. If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer. The faceting machine is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets.Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and polish curved facets.

 

Color is the most obvious and attractive feature of Gem Stones. The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is actually a mixture of different colors of light. When light passes through a material, some of the light may be absorbed, while the rest passes through. The part that is not absorbed reaches the eye as white light minus the absorbed colors. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light (blue, yellow, green, etc.) except red.

 

The same material can exhibit different colors. For example ruby and sapphire have the same chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors. Even the same gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "Padparadscha sapphire".

 

This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom (and this could be as few as one in a million atoms). These so called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected.

 

About the Author

I am Mohan read mathematics at Stanford and remained there for his MS. From 1998-1999 on researched in Evolution and in Animal Behavior in  Camrbidge, UK. I was was then a professor in the departments of Anthropology and Biology, New Jersy College, USA. Now teaches at the department of Zoology. Carried out research in several areas of evolutionary biology, particularly in sexual selection and the comparative method.